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New York: Harper & Row. Jensen, John T. (1990). Morphology. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins. Lieber, Rochelle (1992). Deconstructing Morphology. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Wartburg, Walther von (1967). Évolution et structure de la langue française. 8th edn. Berne: Francke. 7 The Saussurean dichotomies The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure is sometimes thought of as the father of modern linguistics. Although Saussure was well known in his lifetime for his work in the history of Indo-European, his most influential work was not published until after his death, when some of his students got together and, on the basis of their lecture notes, reconstructed the course in linguistics that he had taught in Geneva.

Prescriptive grammar has two typical features: 1. It presents an oversimplification: a particular form is right or wrong. 2. ’ The result of prescriptive grammar is that although all of the forms in (2) are heard from real speakers, the standard, formal, written language has less variation available within it than spoken English. (2e) sounds perfectly normal to many people, particularly in Scotland, but it is probably not part of standard, formal, written English. Models of grammar The alternative to prescriptive grammar is  , the study of language structures in order to describe them thoroughly rather than in order to tell someone else what they should be saying.

School students traditionally showed their mastery of the system by considering each word in a text in turn, and explaining what cell in the paradigm it came from. This is called parsing, and involves looking at a word like ama¯mus and saying that it is the first person plural of the present tense indicative of the verb amo ‘I love’, for example. Students were also expected to write on the basis of the classical models provided. We can call this picture of what grammar is and does ‘traditional grammar’.

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