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In English the pairs of sentences in (3 1 ) contrast by virtue of stress and intonation, while those in (32) do not: (3 1) a. All the boys dJdn' t come . ( rf Not all the boys came . ) b . A ll the boys didn' t come . ) = (32) a. Some of the boys didn ' t come . b . Some of the boys didn ' t come . ( rf None of the boys came . ) The generalization covering both Hindi-Urdu and English could be phrased as follows : Where a constituent may be understood to be in the scope of a 35 Negative Scope and Rules of Conversation negative , and there i s another possible reading in which i t i s not in the scope of the negative, emphasis may be associated with that constituent only when it is understood to be in the scope of the negative.

I refer to the consid­ erations discus sed on pp . 7- 1 0 . ) The nece s sary limitations on the sites o f definite descriptions would not follow on a principled basis from the nature of the predicates in que stio n . Why , under the revised scope hypothesis , would verb s o f the belie ve clas s be found in structures like (22) and (24) , but not (23 ) ? Why would verbs of the say clas s be found in (22) , (23 ) , and (24) ? Why should verbs like murmur and whisper be fo und in (23 ) and (24) , but not in (22) ?

L . ( 1 97 1 ) " On S emantically B ased Grammar , " unpublished paper , Cambridge University, C am bridge . Keenan , E . L. ( 1 972) " On a Semantically B ased Grammar, " Linguistic Inquiry 3 , 4 1 3 -462 . Kripke , S . A . ( 1 972) " Naming and Nece s s ity , " in D . Davidson and G . Harmon, ed s . , Seman­ tics of Na tural Language , Reidel , Dordrecht . McCawley , J . D . " in D . A . Steinberg and L. A . Jakobovitz, eds . , Semantics, C ambridge University Pre s s , London . Montague , R.

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Syntax and Semantics: Pragmatics by Peter Cole


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