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A) Impurity atoms diffusing through vacancies; (b) impurity atoms diffusing through interstitial sites. interstitial void (or site) to another. At a high temperature, the spacing between atoms is wider, so that impurities can diffuse via interstitial sites, as seen in Fig. 14b. When the crystal is cooled, interstitial atoms may return to substitutional sites and become electronically active. Substitution is the diffusion mechanism of boron, phosphorus, and most impurities used in silicon. An important exception is gold, which diffuses primarily by the interstitial mechanism.

Also, as etching proceeds downward, it also proceeds laterally, thereby undercutting the photoresist film and broadening lines. Finally, with the current trend toward submicron geometries, wet chemical etching becomes increasingly difficult because the surface tension of the solutions tends to cause the liquid to bridge the space between two strips of photoresist, thereby preventing etching of the underlying film. Anisotropic etching of a single-crystal material results from the different etch rates to chemical solvents of its crystallographic planes.

These structures can be manufactured easily using molecular beam epitaxy. In integrated optics it is necessary for light to be coupled from one waveguide to another. For this purpose, three types of couplers are utilized: prism, grating, and taper. 31 shows the structure of an output coupler based on a bulk prism and a prism- output coupler integrated into a heterostructure laser. <67) In the integrated prism coupler (Fig. 31a), a portion of the light wave propagating in the waveguide extends into the region of the prism if the air gap is small I.

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